BIO201 CURRENT MIDTERM SOLUTION SPRING 2023 AND GUESS paper BY MAS All Rounder

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BIO201 CURRENT MIDTERM SOLUTION SPRING 2023 BY MAS All Rounder

 

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1.     Steps of meiosis 2

Answer:

Meiosis II is the second one section of meiosis, a specialized cellular division procedure that occurs in sexually reproducing organisms. It follows the finishing touch of meiosis I and consists of the following steps:

a) Prophase II: The chromosomes, which includes two sister chromatids, condense and come to be visible. The nuclear envelope breaks down, and the spindle equipment forms.

B) Metaphase II: The chromosomes align at the equatorial plane of the cellular, with spindle fibers connected to the centromeres of each chromatid.

C) Anaphase II: The sister chromatids separate and are pulled in the direction of opposite poles of the mobile by the shortening of the spindle fibers.

D) Telophase II: The chromosomes attain the opposite poles of the cellular, and nuclear envelopes start to shape around the separated chromosomes. Cytokinesis additionally takes place, resulting within the formation of 4 haploid daughter cells.

 

2.     What are the models of replication?

Answer:

: There are three primary fashions that describe the technique of DNA replication:

a) Conservative version: In this version, the unique DNA molecule remains intact, and a brand new DNA molecule is synthesized to provide two complete double-stranded DNA molecules. Essentially, one daughter DNA molecule is totally composed of the authentic parental DNA, even as the opposite is entirely new.

B) Semi-conservative version: This model indicates that in replication, the authentic DNA molecule unwinds, and every strand acts as a template for the synthesis of a brand new complementary strand. As a result, each daughter DNA molecule consists of one authentic parental strand and one newly synthesized strand.

C) Dispersive version: This version proposes that during replication, the parental DNA molecule breaks into fragments, and each fragment serves as a template for the synthesis of a new strand. Consequently, each daughter DNA molecule contains a mixture of unique parental and newly synthesized DNA segments.

The semi-conservative version, as proposed with the aid of Watson and Crick in 1953, is the maximum widely generic version of DNA replication.

 

 

3.     Difference between DNA and RNA?

Answer:

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) are each nucleic acids, however they have got numerous key variations:

a) Structure: DNA is double-stranded, consisting of complementary strands arranged in a helical shape (double helix). RNA is generally unmarried-stranded, although a few varieties of RNA can shape secondary systems because of base pairing.

B) Sugar: DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose, even as RNA includes the sugar ribose. The difference between the two sugars is the presence or absence of an oxygen atom at the 2' carbon position.

C) Bases: DNA includes four bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). RNA additionally consists of adenine, cytosine, and guanine, but rather than thymine, it includes uracil (U), which pairs with adenine.

D) Function: DNA consists of the genetic statistics that determines the developments and traits of an organism. RNA has numerous functions, such as transmitting genetic information from DNA to protein synthesis machinery (mRNA), catalyzing chemical reactions (ribozymes), and supporting in protein synthesis (tRNA and rRNA).

 

4.     Amino acid made up of which molecules?

Answer:

Amino acids are natural compounds composed of 3 key molecules:

a) Amino Group: Amino acids incorporate an amino organization (-NH2), which consists of a nitrogen atom (N) bonded to two hydrogen atoms (H). The amino organization offers amino acids their call.

B) Carboxyl Group: Amino acids additionally contain a carboxyl organization (-COOH), which includes a carbon atom (C) double-bonded to an oxygen atom (O) and single-bonded to an oxygen atom (OH). The carboxyl organization is liable for the acidic homes of amino acids.

C) Side Chain: Each amino acid has a completely unique facet chain, additionally known as the R-organization. The aspect chain can range in structure and determines the precise houses of every amino acid. It may be a simple hydrogen atom or a complicated arrangement of atoms.

The mixture of the amino organization, carboxyl institution, and facet chain differentiates one amino acid from some other.

5. Briefly discuss the three models of replication: a) Conservative version: The conservative version of replication shows that the authentic DNA molecule remains intact for the duration of replication. Instead of keeping apart into two individual strands, the parental DNA serves as a template for the synthesis of a completely new double-stranded DNA molecule. This results inside the formation of one entirely parental DNA molecule and one completely new DNA molecule.

B) Semi-conservative version: The semi-conservative version proposes that during replication, the authentic DNA molecule unwinds and every strand acts as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand. As a end result, each daughter DNA molecule includes one original parental strand and one newly synthesized strand. This version turned into experimentally proven by way of Meselson and Stahl in 1958 the usage of heavy and light isotopes of nitrogen.

C) Dispersive version: The dispersive version indicates that in replication, the parental DNA molecule breaks into fragments, and every fragment serves as a template for the synthesis of a brand new strand. Consequently, the daughter DNA molecules incorporate a aggregate of authentic parental and newly synthesized DNA segments. This model was proposed as an opportunity to the conservative and semi-conservative models however became later discredited with the aid of greater conclusive evidence assisting the semi-conservative version.

The semi-conservative version is the most correct illustration of DNA replication and is extensively regularly occurring in molecular biology.

 

 

5.     Briefly discuss the 3 models of replication?

Answer:

 

a) Conservative version: The conservative version of replication shows that the authentic DNA molecule remains intact for the duration of replication. Instead of keeping apart into two individual strands, the parental DNA serves as a template for the synthesis of a completely new double-stranded DNA molecule. This results inside the formation of one entirely parental DNA molecule and one completely new DNA molecule.

B) Semi-conservative version: The semi-conservative version proposes that during replication, the authentic DNA molecule unwinds and every strand acts as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand. As a end result, each daughter DNA molecule includes one original parental strand and one newly synthesized strand. This version turned into experimentally proven by way of Meselson and Stahl in 1958 the usage of heavy and light isotopes of nitrogen.

C) Dispersive version: The dispersive version indicates that in replication, the parental DNA molecule breaks into fragments, and every fragment serves as a template for the synthesis of a brand new strand. Consequently, the daughter DNA molecules incorporate a aggregate of authentic parental and newly synthesized DNA segments. This model was proposed as an opportunity to the conservative and semi-conservative models however became later discredited with the aid of greater conclusive evidence assisting the semi-conservative version.

The semi-conservative version is the most correct illustration of DNA replication and is extensively regularly occurring in molecular biology.

 

6.     Functions of membranes?

Answer:

Cellular membranes, which include the plasma membrane and the membranes surrounding organelles within the mobile, carry out various important functions, consisting of:

a) Physical barrier: Membranes act as a selective barrier, separating the cell's internal surroundings from the outside surroundings or compartmentalizing specific cellular cubicles. They save you the out of control movement of molecules and ions, permitting the cell to keep internal homeostasis.

B) Transport and exchange: Membranes contain shipping proteins and channels that adjust the movement of particular molecules and ions across the membrane. This permits the mobile to import vital nutrients, export waste merchandise, and preserve suitable concentrations of ions and signaling molecules.

C) Cell signaling: Membranes play a important role in cell signaling. They include receptors which can detect and bind to particular signaling molecules, starting up a cascade of events within the cellular that alter numerous cellular tactics, which include increase, development, and response to outside stimuli.

D) Energy production: Certain membranes, along with the internal mitochondrial membrane and the thylakoid membranes in chloroplasts, are concerned in strength production. These membranes house the electron shipping chain and ATP synthase, taking into account the era of ATP through strategies like oxidative phosphorylation or photosynthesis.

E) Cell adhesion and conversation: Membranes make a contribution to cellular adhesion and verbal exchange between neighboring cells. They incorporate proteins worried in cellular-cellular interactions, permitting cells to form tissues and organs. Membranes also permit the exchange of signaling molecules and small molecules between adjacent cells.

F) Compartmentalization and organelle characteristic: Membranes help create distinct booths in the mobile, together with the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes. These compartments allow for specialised features and shield unique mobile additives from interference with the aid of other mobile procedures.

Overall, membranes are dynamic systems that carry out vital roles in retaining cellular integrity, regulating molecular shipping, and facilitating cellular communication and corporation.

 

7.     Example of RNA virus?

 

Answer:

It is a single-stranded RNA virus that belongs to the Orthomyxoviridae circle of relatives.

Eight. The steps of mitosis are: a) Prophase: Chromatin condenses into chromosomes, the nuclear envelope breaks down, and the mitotic spindle starts to form. B) Prometaphase: The mitotic spindle absolutely paperwork, and the chromosomes connect to the spindle fibers at their centromeres. C) Metaphase: Chromosomes align alongside the equatorial plane of the cellular. D) Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate and move closer to opposite poles of the mobile. E) Telophase: The nuclear envelope reforms round every set of chromosomes, and the chromosomes begin to decondense. F) Cytokinesis: The cytoplasm divides, resulting within the formation of two daughter cells.

 

 

8.     Step of mitosis?

Answer:

The steps of mitosis are as follows:

 

Interphase: This is the phase before mitosis begins. During interphase, the cell grows, carries out its normal features, and replicates its DNA.

 

Prophase: In this segment, the chromatin condenses and will become visible as distinct chromosomes. The nuclear envelope breaks down, and the mitotic spindle starts offevolved to shape.

 

Prometaphase: The spindle fibers connect to the kinetochores, which can be protein systems located at the centromere of each chromosome. The chromosomes start to flow in the direction of the center of the cell.

 

Metaphase: The chromosomes align along the metaphase plate, that's an imaginary aircraft within the center of the cell. The spindle fibers are fully shaped and attach to the kinetochores of each chromosome.

 

Anaphase: The sister chromatids separate and are pulled toward opposite poles of the cellular. The spindle fibers shorten, and the cellular elongates.

 

Telophase: The separated chromosomes attain the alternative poles of the cell. A new nuclear envelope forms around every set of chromosomes, and the chromosomes begin to decondense.

 

Cytokinesis: This is the very last stage of mitosis and includes the division of the cytoplasm. In animal cells, a cleavage furrow forms, pinching the cell into  daughter cells. In plant cells, a cell plate paperwork among the daughter nuclei, finally becoming a brand new cellular wall.

9.     Golgi apparatus?

 

Answer:

The Golgi equipment is an organelle determined in eukaryotic cells. It consists of a chain of flattened sacs called cisternae. The Golgi equipment plays a important role in processing, modifying, and packaging proteins and lipids synthesized within the endoplasmic reticulum. It receives proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum and modifies them by using including sugars and different molecules to shape glycoproteins. It additionally sorts and applications those proteins into vesicles for shipping to their final destinations in the cellular or for secretion out of doors the mobile.

 

 

 

10.           Messenger hypothesis?

Answer:

The messenger hypothesis, additionally referred to as the vital dogma of molecular biology, states that the go with the flow of genetic facts in cells follows a unidirectional pathway. According to this hypothesis, genetic information is transferred from DNA to RNA (transcription) after which from RNA to protein (translation). In different words, DNA serves because the template for the synthesis of RNA molecules, and RNA molecules function the template for the synthesis of proteins.

 

 

11.           RNA DNA difference?

Answer:

The primary difference among RNA and DNA is their chemical shape and the presence of positive bases. RNA (ribonucleic acid) is typically single-stranded and consists of the sugar ribose, at the same time as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is double-stranded and contains the sugar deoxyribose. Additionally, RNA uses the base uracil (U) as opposed to thymine (T) found in DNA. The primary function of DNA is to keep and transmit genetic data, whilst RNA is involved in various techniques such as protein synthesis (mRNA), transferring amino acids during protein synthesis (tRNA), and catalyzing biochemical reactions (ribozymes).

12.           Krebs cycle?

Answer:

The Krebs cycle, additionally known as the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle, is a sequence of biochemical reactions that occur inside the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells. It is a central metabolic pathway worried inside the aerobic respiration of glucose and other fuel molecules. The Krebs cycle generates excessive-energy molecules which includes ATP and electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fat, and proteins. The cycle entails a series of enzymatic reactions that release carbon dioxide and convey energy-rich molecules, which might be then used in the electron shipping chain to generate ATP.

 

 

13.           Cholesterol and it's derivate?

Answer:

Cholesterol is a sterol lipid this is located in the cell membranes of animals. It plays a vital function in maintaining the fluidity and integrity of mobile membranes. Cholesterol also serves as a precursor for the synthesis of numerous important molecules, including steroid hormones (together with estrogen and testosterone), bile acids, and nutrition D.

 

14.           Coenzyme and its example?

Answer:

 Coenzymes are organic molecules which might be required for the proper functioning of enzymes. They often act as carriers of unique purposeful agencies or electrons in the course of enzymatic reactions. An example of a coenzyme is NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), which plays a crucial role in redox reactions by accepting and donating electrons.

 

15.           Nucleotide and nucleosides?

Answer:

Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids, which includes DNA and RNA. They encompass 3 principal components: a sugar molecule (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA), a phosphate organization, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine/uracil). When the sugar and phosphate group are related collectively, they shape a nucleoside. Nucleosides lack the phosphate organization found in nucleotides.

 

16.           Role of protein in the living organisms?

Answer:

Proteins have numerous critical roles in dwelling organisms. Some in their key capabilities consist of:

• Enzymes: Proteins act as catalysts for biochemical reactions, facilitating the conversion of substrates into products.

• Structural help: Proteins provide structural integrity to cells and tissues, forming additives along with the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix.

• Transport and storage: Proteins participate within the delivery of molecules throughout cell membranes and act as providers for important substances.

• Cell signaling: Proteins function as signaling molecules and receptors, transmitting signals within and among cells.

• Immune response: Antibodies and other immune proteins assist shield the body towards pathogens.

• Regulation of gene expression: Some proteins act as transcription elements, controlling the expression of genes.

Genetic engineering techniques permit scientists to manipulate the genetic fabric (DNA) of organisms. These techniques have various programs, such as:

• Production of genetically changed organisms (GMOs) with favored tendencies, along with sickness resistance or multiplied crop yield.

• Development of genetically engineered drug treatments, along with insulin produced by means of genetically modified bacteria.

• Research functions, including analyzing gene function, understanding disease mechanisms, and developing animal fashions of human diseases.

• Bioremediation, in which organisms are genetically engineered to clean up pollution and contaminants within the surroundings.

 

17.           Role of technique of genetic engineering?

Answer:

Genetic engineering techniques permit scientists to manipulate the genetic fabric (DNA) of organisms. These techniques have various programs, such as:

• Production of genetically changed organisms (GMOs) with favored tendencies, along with sickness resistance or multiplied crop yield.

• Development of genetically engineered drug treatments, along with insulin produced by means of genetically modified bacteria.

• Research functions, including analyzing gene function, understanding disease mechanisms, and developing animal fashions of human diseases.

• Bioremediation, in which organisms are genetically engineered to clean up pollution and contaminants within the surroundings.

 

 

 

18.           Inhibit mechanisms with the help of cribs cycle?

Answer:

The Krebs cycle (additionally known as the citric acid cycle) itself does now not immediately inhibit any specific mechanisms. However, the products of the Krebs cycle, consisting of ATP and decreased electron providers (NADH and FADH2), play important roles in inhibitory mechanisms inside cell respiration. For example, excessive levels of ATP can inhibit enzymes concerned in glycolysis and the Krebs cycle, regulating the production of power to in shape cellular wishes.

 

19.           Application of PCR?

Answer:

 

PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) is a widely used molecular biology method that amplifies a specific DNA collection. Its applications include:

• DNA cloning: PCR can produce massive amounts of a specific DNA fragment, which may be further used for cloning into different DNA vectors.

• Genetic checking out and diagnostics: PCR is employed in detecting genetic mutations, figuring out pathogens, and diagnosing genetic disorders.

• Forensic evaluation: PCR may be used to enlarge DNA samples obtained from crime scenes or paternity tests.

• Environmental studies: PCR lets in the detection and identity of microorganisms in environmental samples, contributing to ecological studies.

 

 

20.           What are uniporter symporter and antiporter differentiate?

Answer:

Uniporter, symporter, and antiporter are shipping proteins involved in the motion of molecules across mobile membranes:

• Uniporter: A uniporter is a membrane protein that facilitates the delivery of a single molecule or ion across the membrane in a single route.

• Symporter: A symporter is a membrane protein that transports two different molecules or ions throughout the membrane concurrently in the identical course.

• Antiporter: An antiporter is a membrane protein that transports two unique molecules or ions across the membrane simultaneously in contrary directions.

 

21.           Difference between DNA and RNA?

Answer:

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) are two types of nucleic acids that fluctuate in shape and function. The principal differences include:

• Sugar: DNA incorporates deoxyribose sugar, while RNA includes ribose sugar.

• Bases: DNA bases include adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). RNA makes use of uracil (U) as opposed to thymine.

• Structure: DNA typically exists as a double-stranded helix, even as RNA is typically single-stranded, although it could form secondary structures.

• Function: DNA stores and transmits genetic facts, while RNA is worried in diverse strategies, along with protein synthesis, gene law, and catalysis.

 

22.           Features of Moises?

Answer:

Purines and pyrimidines are two types of nitrogenous bases determined in nucleotides. The predominant variations between them are:

• Structure: Purines (adenine and guanine) have a double-ring shape, whilst pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine, and uracil) have a unmarried-ring structure.

• Pairing: In DNA and RNA, adenine (purine) pairs with thymine (DNA) or uracil (RNA) (pyrimidines), and guanine (purine) pairs with cytosine (pyrimidine).

• Number: DNA incorporates all four bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine), even as RNA replaces thymine with uracil.

 

23.           Difference between purines and pyrimidine?

Answer:

Purines and pyrimidines are two types of nitrogenous bases determined in nucleotides. The predominant variations between them are:

• Structure: Purines (adenine and guanine) have a double-ring shape, whilst pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine, and uracil) have a unmarried-ring structure.

• Pairing: In DNA and RNA, adenine (purine) pairs with thymine (DNA) or uracil (RNA) (pyrimidines), and guanine (purine) pairs with cytosine (pyrimidine).

• Number: DNA incorporates all four bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine), even as RNA replaces thymine with uracil.

 

24.           Example of RNA viruses any three?

Answer:

• Influenza virus: Causes seasonal flu and occasionally ends in more intense outbreaks or pandemics.

• Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV): Causes obtained immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) via attacking the immune gadget.

• Hepatitis C virus (HCV): Infects the liver and might lead to chronic liver diseases.

• Measles virus: Causes measles, a incredibly contagious viral sickness.

• Ebola virus: Causes extreme and frequently deadly hemorrhagic fever.

• SARS-CoV-2: The coronavirus answerable for the COVID-19 pandemic.

 

25.           1 What is cholesterol and its derivatives?

Answer:

Cholesterol is a sterol lipid this is found inside the cellular membranes of animals. It plays a critical position in maintaining the fluidity and integrity of mobile membranes. Cholesterol is also a precursor for the synthesis of numerous important molecules, together with steroid hormones (inclusive of estrogen and testosterone), bile acids, and diet D. Its derivatives consist of steroid hormones, along with cortisol and aldosterone, as well as bile acids, which include cholic acid and chenodeoxycholic acid.

 

26.           2 polyploidy vs aneuploidy?

Answer:

• Polyploidy: Polyploidy refers back to the presence of extra than two complete units of chromosomes in an organism's cells. It can arise certainly or be precipitated artificially. Polyploidy is incredibly not unusual in flora and is associated with elevated vigor and adaptableness.

• Aneuploidy: Aneuploidy refers to an odd wide variety of chromosomes, where there may be an addition or deletion of 1 or greater chromosomes inside the genome. Aneuploidy is regularly related to genetic problems and can arise due to errors in chromosome segregation in the course of cellular division.

 

27.           Importance of protein?

Answer:

Proteins are important molecules in dwelling organisms due to their various vital functions:

• Enzymes: Proteins act as catalysts, dashing up biochemical reactions in cells.

• Structural additives: Proteins provide structural aid and agency to cells, tissues, and organs.

• Transport and communique: Proteins are worried inside the delivery of molecules throughout cell membranes and play a position in cell signaling and communique.

• Immune response: Antibodies are specialized proteins that assist defend the frame towards pathogens.

• Hormones: Certain proteins act as hormones, regulating various physiological procedures inside the frame.

• Enzyme law: Proteins can manipulate the activity of different proteins or enzymes via regulation or inhibition.

28.           Large subunits of ribosomes?

Answer:

The large subunits of ribosomes are composed of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and severa proteins. In eukaryotes, the large subunit incorporates a 28S rRNA molecule, in conjunction with several other rRNA molecules and various proteins. In prokaryotes, the massive subunit contains a 23S rRNA molecule, along with other rRNA molecules and proteins.

 

 

29.           Functions of cell membranes?

Answer:

The mobile membrane, also referred to as the plasma membrane, plays numerous vital functions, which includes:

• Selective permeability: The cell membrane regulates the motion of materials into and out of the mobile, permitting the passage of unique molecules at the same time as restricting others.

• Cell signaling: The mobile membrane contains receptors which could locate and respond to outside indicators, initiating cellular responses.

• Cell adhesion: The mobile membrane plays a function in mobile-to-mobile adhesion and the formation of tissues and organs.

• Transport of molecules: Proteins embedded inside the cell membrane facilitate the delivery of ions, vitamins, and different molecules across the membrane.

• Cell reputation: The mobile membrane contains molecules that permit cells to recognize and communicate with one another, critical for immune responses and cell interactions.

 

30.           Cholesterol and it's derivate?

Answer:

Cholesterol, as cited in advance, is a sterol lipid located in animal cell membranes. It helps maintain the fluidity and integrity of the cell membrane by using affecting its packing and rigidity. Cholesterol also plays a position in regulating membrane fluidity at distinct temperatures. It acts as a precursor for the synthesis of steroid hormones, bile acids, and nutrition D. Cholesterol derivatives consist of steroid hormones like cortisol and aldosterone, in addition to bile acids like colic acid and chenodeoxy colic acid.

 

31.           Coenzyme and its example?

Answer:

Coenzymes are organic molecules which can be required for the proper functioning of enzymes. They regularly act as providers of precise practical agencies or electrons in the course of enzymatic reactions. Examples of coenzymes include NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide), and Coenzyme A.

32.           Nucleotide and nucleosides?

Answer:

Nucleotides are the constructing blocks of nucleic acids, along with DNA and RNA. They encompass three predominant components: a sugar molecule (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA), a phosphate organization, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine/uracil). When the sugar and phosphate organization are linked together, they shape a nucleoside. Nucleosides lack the phosphate institution found in nucleotides.

 

33.           Role of protein in the living organisms?

Answer:

Proteins have severa essential roles in dwelling organisms. Some of their key capabilities encompass:

• Enzymes: Proteins act as catalysts for biochemical reactions, facilitating the conversion of substrates into products.

• Structural assist: Proteins provide structural integrity to cells and tissues, forming components which include the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix.

• Transport and storage: Proteins take part within the delivery of molecules throughout cell membranes and act as companies for vital materials.

• Cell signaling: Proteins function as signaling molecules and receptors, transmitting alerts inside and between cells.

• Immune reaction: Antibodies and different immune proteins help guard the frame towards pathogens.

• Regulation of gene expression: Some proteins act as transcription factors, controlling the expression of genes.

 

 

 

34.           Role of technique of genetic engineering?

Answer:

 

Genetic engineering techniques permit scientists to manipulate the genetic cloth (DNA) of organisms. These strategies have numerous applications, consisting of:

• Production of genetically changed organisms (GMOs) with desired tendencies, which includes ailment resistance or multiplied crop yield.

• Development of genetically engineered drug treatments, including insulin produced by means of genetically changed micro organism.

• Research functions, which include analyzing gene function, information disease mechanisms, and growing animal fashions of human diseases.

• Bioremediation, wherein organisms are genetically engineered to easy up pollution and contaminants in the environment.

 

35.           Inhibit mechanisms with the help of cribs cycle?

Answer:

. The citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) itself does now not immediately inhibit specific mechanisms. However, the products of the citric acid cycle, consisting of ATP and reduced electron carriers (NADH and FADH2), play critical roles in inhibitory mechanisms inside mobile respiratory. For example, excessive levels of ATP can inhibit enzymes involved in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, regulating the production of energy to match cell needs.

 

36.           Purines and pyrimidine?

Answer:

Purines and pyrimidines are  styles of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides:

• Purines: Adenine (A) and guanine (G) are purine bases. They have a double-ring shape.

• Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C), thymine (T, determined in DNA), and uracil (U, discovered in RNA) are pyrimidine bases. They have a single-ring shape.

.

 

37.           2. Cristae types?

 

Answer:

Cristae are inward-folded systems of the internal mitochondrial membrane. They increase the floor vicinity available for the electron shipping chain and oxidative phosphorylation that are crucial for ATP production. There are primary kinds of cristae located in mitochondria: tubular cristae and lamellar cristae.

38.           3. Factor regulate enzyme?

Answer:

Enzyme pastime may be regulated by using different factors, inclusive of:

• Substrate awareness: The concentration of substrate molecules can have an effect on enzyme hobby. Increasing substrate concentration commonly leads to accelerated enzyme interest until a saturation point is reached.

• pH: Enzymes have an highest quality pH at which they show off maximum pastime. Deviations from the optimum pH can have an effect on enzyme structure and function.

• Temperature: Enzyme hobby is motivated by way of temperature, with maximum enzymes having an surest temperature at which they paintings efficiently. Extreme temperatures can denature enzymes.

• Cofactors and coenzymes: Enzymes may additionally require cofactors (inorganic ions) or coenzymes (natural molecules) for their proper functioning. The presence or absence of those factors can affect enzyme interest.

Proteins play a vital position in dwelling organisms. Some in their key capabilities include:

• Enzymes: Proteins act as catalysts, facilitating biochemical reactions in cells.

• Structural aid: Proteins provide structural integrity to cells, tissues, and organs.

• Transport and communication: Proteins are concerned in the shipping of molecules across mobile membranes and play a function in mobile signaling and conversation.

• Immune reaction: Antibodies and immune proteins help shield the frame in opposition to pathogens.

• Hormones: Certain proteins act as hormones, regulating various physiological techniques inside the frame.

• Gene expression regulation: Proteins can control the expression of genes, influencing cellular capabilities and development.

 

 

39.           Role of protein?

Answer:

Proteins play a vital position in dwelling organisms. Some in their key capabilities include:

• Enzymes: Proteins act as catalysts, facilitating biochemical reactions in cells.

• Structural aid: Proteins provide structural integrity to cells, tissues, and organs.

• Transport and communication: Proteins are concerned in the shipping of molecules across mobile membranes and play a function in mobile signaling and conversation.

• Immune reaction: Antibodies and immune proteins help shield the frame in opposition to pathogens.

• Hormones: Certain proteins act as hormones, regulating various physiological techniques inside the frame.

• Gene expression regulation: Proteins can control the expression of genes, influencing cellular capabilities and development.

 

40.           2. Function of DNA?

Answer:

The capabilities of DNA encompass:

• Genetic statistics storage: DNA consists of the genetic instructions important for the development, boom, and functioning of all living organisms. It carries the hereditary data surpassed from parents to offspring.

• DNA replication: DNA is replicated at some stage in cellular division, making sure that each new cell gets an identical replica of the genetic cloth.

• Gene expression: DNA serves as a template for the synthesis of RNA molecules through the technique of transcription. These RNA molecules then participate in protein synthesis via translation.

• Mutation and variation: DNA can undergo changes referred to as mutations, which make contributions to genetic variant and evolution. Mutations can lead to the advent of latest tendencies or changes in present trends

 

41.           3. Cellular membrane main components?

Answer:

The fundamental additives of the cell membrane, also referred to as the plasma membrane, are:

• Phospholipids: Phospholipids shape a lipid bilayer, with their hydrophilic (water-loving) heads facing outward and their hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails facing inward.

• Proteins: Integral membrane proteins are embedded inside the lipid bilayer, while peripheral membrane proteins are loosely associated with the membrane floor. These proteins carry out diverse functions, along with transport, cellular signaling, and structural support.

• Cholesterol: Cholesterol molecules are interspersed inside the lipid bilayer and assist modify membrane fluidity and balance.

• Glycolipids and glycoproteins: These molecules have carbohydrate chains connected to lipids or proteins, respectively. They play roles in mobile popularity, adhesion, and cellular-cellular conversation.

 

42.           Principles of RFLP?

Answer:

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) is a way utilized in molecular biology to investigate variations in DNA sequences. The principles of RFLP consist of:

• Restriction enzymes: Specific restriction enzymes apprehend and cleave DNA at precise popularity sites, producing DNA fragments of various lengths.

• Gel electrophoresis: The DNA fragments produced via restriction enzyme digestion are separated on an agarose gel primarily based on their length using an electric powered cutting-edge. Smaller fragments migrate faster, whilst large fragments circulate extra slowly.

• DNA hybridization: After gel electrophoresis, the DNA fragments are transferred to a membrane and probed with a categorized DNA or RNA probe that may bind to unique DNA sequences. This allows the detection and visualization of DNA fragments with complementary sequences.

43.           Features of Nucleus?

Answer:

The nucleus is a membrane-sure organelle observed in eukaryotic cells. Some capabilities of the nucleus encompass:

• Nuclear envelope: The nucleus is enclosed via a double membrane called the nuclear envelope, which separates the nuclear contents from the cytoplasm. Nuclear pores allow the change of molecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

• Chromosomes: The nucleus includes DNA organized into structures called chromosomes. Chromosomes carry genetic statistics and are composed of DNA wrapped round proteins called histones.

• Nucleolus: The nucleolus is a region within the nucleus in which ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized and ribosome assembly starts offevolved.

• Nuclear matrix: The nuclear matrix gives structural help to the nucleus and plays a function in organizing and regulating DNA within the nucleus.

• Transcription and gene law: The nucleus is the site of DNA transcription, in which messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules are synthesized from DNA templates. It additionally performs a position in gene law, controlling which genes are expressed in a given cell.

 

44.           Prosthetic group and its example?

Answer:

A prosthetic group is a non-protein molecule that is tightly bound to a protein and is needed for its proper functioning. An example of a prosthetic organization is heme, which is a prosthetic organization determined in hemoglobin and myoglobin. Heme is answerable for binding and carrying oxygen in purple blood cells.

 

45.           Nucleotide and nucleosides?

Answer:

Nucleotides and nucleosides are related molecules found in nucleic acids:

• Nucleotides: Nucleotides are composed of three predominant components: a sugar molecule (ribose or deoxyribose), a phosphate institution, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine/uracil). Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA.

• Nucleosides: Nucleosides are much like nucleotides but lack the phosphate organization. They include a sugar molecule and a nitrogenous base. Nucleosides can be phosphorylated to form nucleotides.

 

 

46.           Role of protein in the living organisms?

Answer:

Proteins play a vital function in residing organisms. Some key roles of proteins consist of:

• Enzymes: Proteins act as catalysts, facilitating biochemical reactions in cells.

• Structural help: Proteins provide structural integrity to cells, tissues, and organs.

• Transport and communique: Proteins are worried in the delivery of molecules across cell membranes and play a position in mobile signaling and verbal exchange.

• Immune response: Antibodies and other immune proteins help defend the body in opposition to pathogens.

• Hormones: Certain proteins act as hormones, regulating numerous physiological procedures in the frame.

• Gene expression regulation: Proteins can manage the expression of genes, influencing cellular capabilities and development.

 

47.           Note on technique of genetic engineering?

Answer:

Genetic engineering techniques contain the manipulation of an organism's genetic cloth (DNA) to achieve favored effects. These strategies have diverse packages, together with:

• Production of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) with desired trends, together with sickness resistance or multiplied crop yield.

• Development of genetically engineered medicines, which includes insulin produced with the aid of genetically modified bacteria.

• Research functions, inclusive of analyzing gene characteristic, understanding disease mechanisms, and growing animal fashions of human illnesses.

• Bioremediation, wherein organisms are genetically engineered to easy up pollutants and contaminants within the environment.

 

48.           Functions of cellular membranes?

Answer:

The cell membranes have numerous capabilities, which include:

• Selective permeability: Cellular membranes modify the access and exit of molecules, allowing the passage of unique substances whilst limiting others.

• Cell signaling: Membrane proteins play a role in cell signaling, transmitting signals from the outside environment to the mobile's indoors.

• Transport of molecules: Membrane proteins facilitate the delivery of ions, nutrients, and other molecules across the membrane.

• Cell adhesion: Cellular membranes are worried in cell-to-mobile adhesion, keeping tissue and organ structure.

• Compartmentalization: Membranes create wonderful booths inside cells, making an allowance for specialised features and processes to occur in extraordinary areas.

• Energy manufacturing: Certain membranes, together with the inner mitochondrial membrane and thylakoid membranes in chloroplasts, are worried in electricity production via ATP synthesis.

 

49.           Principles of RFLP?

Answer:

The ideas of Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) are as follows:

• Restriction enzymes: Specific restriction enzymes understand and bind to specific DNA sequences referred to as reputation sites. These enzymes cleave the DNA at or close to the popularity sites.

• DNA digestion: The DNA sample of interest is handled with a restriction enzyme, which cuts the DNA into fragments at the popularity web sites. Each person's DNA might also have versions within the quantity and location of those popularity web sites.

• Gel electrophoresis: The digested DNA fragments are separated based totally on their length using gel electrophoresis. An electric powered contemporary is applied to the gel, inflicting the DNA fragments to migrate thru the gel matrix. Smaller fragments pass quicker and tour farther than larger fragments.

• DNA visualization: After gel electrophoresis, the DNA fragments are stained or categorised with a fluorescent dye for visualization. The resulting banding pattern on the gel represents the one of a kind fragment sizes.

• Polymorphism evaluation: By evaluating the banding patterns of various people, variations within the DNA sequences may be identified. These versions are known as Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLPs). RFLPs may be used for genetic mapping, genetic fingerprinting, and identifying genetic issues.

 

50.           Features of Nucleus?

Answer:

The nucleus is a membrane-sure organelle observed in eukaryotic cells. Some features of the nucleus consist of:

• Nuclear envelope: The nucleus is enclosed via a double membrane referred to as the nuclear envelope, which separates the nuclear contents from the cytoplasm. Nuclear pores permit the alternate of molecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

• Chromosomes: The nucleus contains DNA organized into structures referred to as chromosomes. Chromosomes convey genetic data and are composed of DNA wrapped around proteins referred to as histones.

• Nucleolus: The nucleolus is a place within the nucleus where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized and ribosome meeting starts off evolved.

• Nuclear matrix: The nuclear matrix provides structural support to the nucleus and plays a position in organizing and regulating DNA within the nucleus.

• Transcription and gene regulation: The nucleus is the web page of DNA transcription, in which messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules are synthesized from DNA templates. It also plays a function in gene regulation, controlling which genes are expressed in a given cellular.

 

51.           Prosthetic group and its example?

Answer:

A prosthetic organization is a non-protein molecule that is tightly sure to a protein and is needed for its proper functioning. An example of a prosthetic institution is heme that is a prosthetic organization located in hemoglobin and myoglobin. Hemet is responsible for binding and sporting oxygen in pink blood cells.

 

52.           Nucleotide and nucleosides?

Answer:

. Nucleotides and nucleosides are related molecules found in nucleic acids:

• Nucleotides: Nucleotides are composed of three primary additives: a sugar molecule (ribose or deoxyribose), a phosphate organization, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine/uracil). Nucleotides are the constructing blocks of nucleic acids, together with DNA and RNA.

• Nucleosides: Nucleosides are similar to nucleotides however lack the phosphate organization. They consist of a sugar molecule and a nitrogenous base. Nucleosides may be phosphorylated to form nucleotides.

 

53.           Role of protein in the living organisms?

Answer:

Proteins play a important position in living organisms. Some key roles of proteins consist of:

• Enzymes: Proteins act as catalysts, facilitating biochemical reactions in cells.

• Structural aid: Proteins provide structural integrity to cells, tissues, and organs.

• Transport and verbal exchange: Proteins are involved within the transport of molecules across mobile membranes and play a function in cell signaling and communication.

• Immune response: Antibodies and different immune proteins help guard the body in opposition to pathogens.

• Hormones: Certain proteins act as hormones, regulating diverse physiological tactics inside the frame.

• Gene expression regulation: Proteins can manipulate the expression of genes, influencing mobile features and improvement.

 

54.           Note on technique of genetic engineering?

Answer:

Genetic engineering strategies contain the manipulation of an organism's genetic cloth (DNA) to achieve favored outcomes. These strategies have numerous programs, which includes:

• Production of genetically changed organisms (GMOs) with favored developments, together with sickness resistance or accelerated crop yield.

• Development of genetically engineered drug treatments, along with insulin produced with the aid of genetically modified bacteria.

• Research purposes, together with analyzing gene feature, knowledge disorder mechanisms, and developing animal fashions of human diseases.

• Bioremediation, wherein organisms are genetically engineered to easy up pollution and contaminants inside the environment.

 

55.           Functions of cellular membranes?

Answer:

 

The cell membranes have several features, such as:

• Selective permeability: Cellular membranes adjust the access and go out of molecules, allowing the passage of unique materials even as restricting others.

• Cell signaling: Membrane proteins play a role in cell signaling, transmitting indicators from the outside surroundings to the cell's interior.

• Transport of molecules: Membrane proteins facilitate the delivery of ions, vitamins, and different molecules across the membrane.

• Cell adhesion: Cellular membranes are worried in cell-to-mobile adhesion, keeping tissue and organ shape.

• Compartmentalization: Membranes create distinct compartments inside cells, taking into account specialized features and techniques to arise in unique regions.

• Energy manufacturing: Certain membranes, which include the inner mitochondrial membrane and thylakoid membranes in chloroplasts, are worried in power manufacturing thru ATP synthesis.

 

 

 

 

CURREN MIDTERM MCQS SOLUTION OF SPRING 2023 BY MAS All Rounder

 

1. Ammonia is formed at..... 450_500          temperature

2. Oaks of fragments are joined by.... Ligase enzyme

3. At equilibrium delta G is..... 0

4. Probability range is from ... 0 to 1

5. The nuclear membrane is continuous with--- Endoplasmic reticulum

6. The observable feature in the subject of genetics called _ Trait, Character & phenotype, all of these

7. Cell membrane expels particles by vesicle formation-------- Exocytosis

8. RNAs in large subunits of eukaryotic ribosome -------- 3

9. Difference between the alpha 1-4 glyosidic and beta 1-4 glyosidic bonds is on the basis of__ Size and Shape

10. Following has a major role in down syndrome___   maternal age

11. Polypeptide chains has alpha helices, beta sheets, both (both is correct option)

 

 

 

BIO201 MID+FINAL M.C.Q.S MEGA FILE

ALL DATA FROM QUIZES+GRAND QUIZES

 

 

1.                 --------- Energy is the energy of motion.      Kinetic

2.                 Ribosomes can be free or attached with---------      Endoplasmic reticulum

3.                 Which organ /molecule can convert light energy?     NAD

4.                 Beta pleated sheet is found in -----     Secondary protein structure

5.                 Inhibitors that binds to a site other than active site of enzymes-------        Non-competitive inhibitors

6.                 Lipids act as a following in which many components of cell membrane floats -----     Lake

7.                 How many macromolecules a cell has----    4

8.                 Cell membrane expels particles by vesicle formation--------      Exocytosis  

9.                 Molecules of phospholipids has --------     Hydrophobic & Hydrophilic domain

10.             If one gene prevents the expression of other gene----    Epistasis

11.             Phenylalanine hydroxylase metabolizes --------    Phenylalanine to Tyrosine

12.             Restriction enzymes inhibit the growth-------   Bacteria

13.             Missing of enzymes homogentisic acid oxidase caused --------   Alkaptonuria

14.             Microtubules are originated from -------    Cytoskeletal

15.             The disintegration and condensation of nuclear material takes place in --------     Prophase 11

16.             RNAs in large subunits of eukaryotic ribosome --------      3

17.             Centromeres separate during whose anaphase -----     Mitosis

18.             Enormous genetic information is present in -----    DNA

19.             Okazaki fragments are joined by ----    Ligase

20.             How much water present in a cell ----   70%

21.             Charge on DNA is -----      Neutral

22.             Which of the following stabilizes cell shape -----   Actin

23.             Spaces between double membrane structure of endoplasmic reticulum is ---    Lumen

24.             -------- is one of the example of co factor     Copper

25.             DNA replicates during-----   S phase

26.             Difference between the alpha 1-4 glycosidic and beta 1-4 glycosidic bonds is on the basis of    Size and Shape

27.             Example of variable expressivity       Huntington disease

28.             Following has a major role in down syndrome      Maternal age

29.             DNA replication obeys      Semi- conservative model

30.             The RNA us ------ while DNA is --------    Single stranded, double stranded

31.             Ribosomes after protein formation arrives at      Golgi bodies

32.             The nuclear membrane is continuous with       Endoplasmic reticulum  

33.             Power generation organelle of the cell is      Mitochondria

34.             The observable feature in the subject of genetics called    Trait, Character & phenotype, All of these

35.             Bacteriophage is a --------    Virus

36.             Hershey and Chase proposed that DNA is heredity material in--------   1944

37.             The most significant feature of down syndrome is -------   short stature

38.             ---------- disease have no excision repair system and persons may have severe sunburn, dry skin        Xeroderma pigment sum

39.             Which of the following are characters of turner syndrome      Short stature, Lymphedema & broad chest,   All mentioned

40.             Xeroderma pigmentation may be caused by ------    UV light

41.             Single palmer fold is known as -----     Simian crease

42.             Large subunits of ribosomes contain polypeptides      45 polypeptides

43.             The bond formed by the sharing of electrons is -----      Covalent bond

44.             The general formula of carbohydrates is ----    CH2O

45.             Which of the following are stop codon ---    UAA, UGA & UAG, All of the above

46.             Which of the following equation is true ---   H= G+TS

47.             Formula of glucose ----   C6H12O6

48.             Chromosomes are made up of ----- types of polymers.     DNA & proteins

49.             Mendel did not observe linkage due to ----     Independent assortment

50.             The most significant feature of down syndrome is -----  Simian crease, Folded palm

51.             Glycosidic linkage is between ---- and ----- element.    C & N 

52.             Movement of water molecules from low solute concentration to high solute concentration ---  Osmosis

53.             Carbon is ---- element.    Tetravalent

54.             Which of the following are examples of monosaccharaides?    Glucose

55.             Uracil is present only in -------     RNA

56.             Restriction endonuclease was discovered by -------      Nathan & Smith

57.             Error  rate for DNA polymerase is -------       1000 mutation/ division

58.             How many linkage groups are present in humans?     23

59.             Binds the enzyme at non active site causes a conformational change prevents enzyme from binding its substrate.      Non- competitive inhibitors

60.             The formula for calculating the diversity of proteins is ------    20n

61.             Formation of NH3 molecule from H2 and N2 is carried out at ------- temperature.      450500 °C

62.             Very low amount of DNA can be measured by using ------   PCR

63.             If reporter and quencher are adjacent to each other they ------ produce light.      Small amount of light produced

64.             -------- Molecules provide barrier to the hydrophobic materials across the membrane.     Lipid

65.             Lipids in the membrane are present in ----- form.      Phospholipids

66.             Agarose is a ---- material.     Carbohydrate

67.             RNA polymerase opens ------base pairs at a time.       25 bp

68.             Cells are too small to maintain----- ratio.    Large surface area to volume, volume to mass & charge to mass, all of these.

69.             The reverse of a condensation reaction is -----     Hydrolysis

70.             How many types of bacterial colony were used by Frederick Griffith in his experiment?   2

71.             ----- Vitamins act as receptor for light and present in eyes.    Vitamin A

72.             A nucleotide is ----     Sugar and Nitrogenous base

73.             ----- is the first product of transcription in eukaryotes.     Pre mRNA

74.             Ribosomes consist of RNA and ---- molecules.    Protein

75.             Cutting of plasmid and inserting foreign gene into it is ------- Genetic engineering

76.             After 30 cycles almost ----- number of copies are formed.    16 billion

77.             Which of the following steps for the production of RNA is not regulated by enhancers?     Termination

78.             ------- passes the message to the next signaling component in the chain.    

79.             The degradation of mRNA begins, when its tail reduces to ----- residues.     30

80.             Genes are located in-----    Chromosomes

81.             The catalytic unit of RNA polymerase when placed properly during initiation is just over -----      +1 site

82.             ------ Type of transport does not require  any input of energy to drive the process.    Passive transport

83.             Redundant in codon means-----        One codon specify more than one amino acids

84.             Transition consists of ---------steps     3

85.             Genes are located in the nucleus and tangled chromatin material wrapped around histone is --------      Eukaryotes

86.             Alkaptonuria is more prevalent in case of cousin marriages and has percentage------   12.5%

87.             --------- Site on ribosome where changed tRNA lands with the help of transfer factor.      T site

88.             An excision repair mechanism removes abnormal bases formed by ----- Chemical damage

89.             Mendel studies how many characters of Pisum  Sativum      7

90.             RFLP involves-------     Used of identify a specific DNA

91.             Examples of polysaccharides are -----   Rice & Wheat

92.             Central dogma is -------     DNA-RNA-proteins

93.             Dye which monitor the migration of DNA in gel electrophoresis:     Bromophenol Blue

94.             When was the operation mechanism of a bacterial operon first elucidated?    1961

95.             The channel that allows the exit of the coding strand is known as --------      NTP channel

96.             In an experiment you use RNA polymerase without its sigma factor for transcription. What will be the result that you observe?  Less transcription

97.             Which of these is not a part of RNA polymerase elongation machinery?    RNA entry channel

98.             PCR can detect -------       HCV virus, HBV virus & HIV virus,  All mentioned

99.             Taqman is probe present in -------  Nested PCR

100.         -------- diseases has no excision repair system and persons may have severe sunburn, dry skin         Xeroderma pigment sum

101.         ------ are a group of related motor proteins that use a microtubule track in movement     Kinesins

102.         Stitching two different DNAs together is -------     Genetic engineering

103.         Oligosaccharides have ------ monomers.    3-20

104.         Autotrophs means media in which additional supplements are -----     Added

105.         In alkaptonuria ------ enzyme is missing.  Home genetic acid oxidase

106.         Overall error rate in DNA polymerase 1 is ------ in eukaryotes.     1 in 10 power 10

107.         Delta G (Target free)tells us the -------    equilibrium point  of the reaction

108.         The lac operon is under positive control, a phenomenon called -------    Mutation 

109.         The first recombinant DNA molecule was synthesized in the year ----    1972

110.         Heme, Flavin and Retinal are ------     Co enzymes

111.         Cells that don’t divide are usually arrest I ------ phase       G 0

112.         The most important product of central dogma is ----- that perform number of functions in the body.      Proteins

113.         Active site is present in the -------    Enzyme

114.         Protein containing vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum transfer substance to the -----   Cis region of Golgi apparatus

115.         DNA wraps around protein forming ----- structure.    Nucleosome

116.         In a bacterial operon, which is located downstream of the structural gene?    Operator

117.         Which cation is placed in the catalytic subunit of RNA polymerase?     Mg2+

118.         An enzyme that can separate the two DNA strand is -----   Helicase

119.         How many dollars were spent on human genome sequence?      2.7 billion U.S. dollar 120. Which one is a sex chromosome?    X

  

 

 Final Term Portion

1.      TH2 cells mainly help to activate:        Bcells

2.      Fibroblast cells can be induced to proliferate by treatment with.............. Epidermal growth factor (EG)  

3.      Even in the absence of antigen humans can make more than..........different antibody molecules.  10₁₂

4.      The_____ immune system, like the____ system, can remember prior experiences Adaptive, nervous 

5.      Inhibitors that binds to a site other than active site of enzyme.     Irreversible inhibitor

6.      Condition in which cells have specific binding.     Cell adhesion

7.      People with the Y chromosome have external appearance.    Abnormal

8.      Which one is the product of genetic engineering?     Inulin

9.      Which one is initiation codon?    AUG

10.  Function of Golgi apparatus is ------     Packing and transportation of proteins

11.  An average globular cell has ----- mitochondria.    10,000

12.  Chromosome fibers consist of----    DNA & proteins

13.  Microtubules which are not attached to the chromosome are-----     Mitotic center

14.  The number of appearance of chromosomes in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell is called---     Karyotype

15.  HIV is a ---     RNA virus

16.  Ribosomes are engaged in ----   protein synthesis

17.  ------ are removed during RNA maturation.      Introns

18.  Mendel donated dominant and recessive traits as -----    SS and ss

19.  Structure of protein is ----    three dimensional

20.  The fusion of membranes from the same compartments is termed as ----    Homontypic fusion

21.  Which substance in immune system causes capillaries to dilate and become leaky?   Histamine

22.  On which site a substrate binds on an enzyme-----   Active site

23.  For optimum activity of hydrolytic enzymes, lysosomes maintain a pH about.    5.0

24.  Which one of the following helps in stimulating breast cells to produce milk?   Prolactin

25.  Proteins which are fully translocated across Endoplasmic reticulum and are embedded in it ------   Water soluble proteins

26.  Activation energy of an enzymatic reaction is     Low

27.  Oncogenes after mutation produce one of abnormal condition.      Cancer

28.  Philadelphia chromosome is a chromosomal translocation between chromosome  ---- and ----      9 & 22

29.  Cyanobacteria is a type of bacteria that has----    Chlorophyll

30.  Helices that are involved in against binding are      Helix 5

31.  The lipids molecules held together by weak interactions and -----    Van der Waals forces

32.  Beta blockers are involved in       mimicking the function of a hormone.

33.  Initiation site of transcription        Promoter

34.  Sex related disorders are        X- related

35.  Function of G protein in vision may ----    Activation of Phospholipase c- Beta

36.  Ran GTpase is a molecular switch that exits in      2 states

37.  Dendritic cells use on which of the following signal to guide helper T cells to effector T cells -------    IL- 2

38.  The small subunits of ribosomes are bind to mRNA this sequence is called?   ShineDalgarno sequence

39.  After translation, ---- can be removed?     Methionine

40.  rRNA in small subunit stabilizes ----- between m and rRNA?     H- binding

41.  Large subunits break bond between?   tRNA

42.  Protein folding information is a function of ----- sequences?   AA

43.  The signal sequences for the action of proteins is present in -------?  Polypeptide chains

44.  Proteins sequences begin on -------?       Free ribosomes

45.  An NLS is necessary for import of proteins into the ------?     Nucleus

46.  Which mutation passes on the daughter cells after the mitosis?      Somatic mutation

47.  Point mutation has base pair?    Single

48.  No charge in amino acid sequence in ------?     Silent mutation

49.  A protein that carries oxygen in humans?     Red blood cells

50.  ------- is the study of the heritable changes in gene expression?          Epigenetics

51. 52.

Cluster of genes with ------ promoter is called operon?     1

Tryptophan blocks RNA polymerase from ------?    Binding and transcribing genes

53.  Which regulatory molecule enhances transcription?     CRP-cAMP

54.  An operon is regulated by ------?    Activated protein

55.  DNA is highly ordered around positively charged -----?     Histone proteins

56. 57.

Which groups reduces positive charge when add to histones?    Acetyl Promoter has ----- essential sequences?    Two

58.  TATA box where ---- begins to denature?    DNA

59.  Eukaryotic promoter have TATA box, which is located----?     25bp

60.  The first transcription factor is -----?   TF11D

61.  Many genes have enhancer away ---- nucleotide?     1000

62.  During RNA maturation introns are ----?     Removed

63. 64.

RNA has complimentary bases that bind CS at ------ exon- introns boundary?    5’

The active X makes RNAi anti Xist gene approximately called ----?    Tsix

65.                          Which attract chromosomal proteins?    Methylation & Histone DE acetylation

66.                          Multicellular organisms cells are specialized for the support ----- /     Brain sugar

67.                          Our sense organs allow us to chemical respond to -----?   Taste

68.                          Signal detection to final response is called---?   Signal transduction pathway

69.                          Which signal receptors on the cells that secrete them?   Autocrine signal

70.                          Cell behavior in an environment flooded with ------ of Ligands      Hundred

71.                          Inactive ICR may be ----- bond?    DNA

72.                          How many types of Proteins?    8

73.                          Wich protin spread signal from one pathway to another?     Bifurcation

74.                          Which protein produce intracellular mediatores?   Amplifier

75.                          Many cells use --- proteins to enhance porteins?    Scaffold

76.                          ----- are produced by in response to signal received by the receptor?     SCIMs

77.                          Helices ------ that participate in against binding?  3,5 & 6

78.                          Ligand activates --- proteins?     G

79.                          cAMP can bind ----- to open them?    Ion channels

80.                          One receptor----- active Gs?    100

81.                          Per receptor-hormone complex are produced by ----- cAMP?    Hundred

82.                          Release of glucose fuels ----- response?    Flight or fight

83.                          AKA cAMP depend protein -----?   Kinase

84.                          The PKAs are -----?   Tetramerase

85.                          PDE1 receptor interacts with -----?   G1

86.                          The G protein the synthesis of cAMP by -----?    Adenylyl cyclase

87.                          One rhodopsin molecule absorbs ----- proton?    One

88.                          Calmodulin binds 4 Ca 2+ allosteric (PKA) ----?  1%

89.                          Tired brain produces-----?   Adenosine

90.                          Extracellular ligands binding domain on ----- segments?  1 trans membrane

91.                          Most numerous receptors tyrosine ------?   Kinases

92.                          EGF activated MAPK stays active for ---- minute?   5

93.                          ---- Genes encode kinases?    2%

94.                          ----- Proteins are phosphorylated?    1/3

95.                          Activated RAF is phosphorylates many molecules of -----?   MEK

96.                          APC gene mutation occurs in human colon cancer -----?   80%

97.                          Proteolysis means protein ------?   Breaking

98.                          APC adheres junctions scaffold protein called -----? Axin 

99.                          BTK and PLC –Y to the cytoplasmic face of the -----?   Plasma membrane

100.                      ABL protein preventing ----?   Binding

101.                      Stimulation of milk production is due to -----?   Prolaction

103.

102.                      Bruton’s tyrosine mutation is associated protein kinase B?   X linked Which signal cells indirectly activating protein kinase B?     Pl 3

104.                      Intracellular protease cleaves off the cytoplasmic tail of ----- when it binds ----?    Notch, delta

105.                      Activated protein is -----?   PKB

106.                      Which receptor required for signaling?    Type 1- TGF beta & Type 2 TGF beta, Both

107.                      Smad complex move into ------- for association of other gene regulatory proteins?   Nucleus

108.                      ----- Protein called Disheveled is activated when Wnt is present.    Cytoplasmic signaling

109.                      Which is the primary source due to the skin is lost?    Injury infection

110.                      Pathogens may cause infection of ----?   Digestive system

111.                      Our tears and saliva have enzymes that destroy ----?    Microorganisms

112.                      Steps of immune system?   4

113.                      Histamine diffuses into ----?    Capillaries

114.                      Phagocytes engulf ---- and dead cells?   Bactria

115.                      Erythrocytes transport oxygen and ---?   Carbon dioxide

116.                      Which cells release histamine when damaged?    Mast cells

117.                      T cells mature in ----?     Thymus 

118.                      Lymph nodes contain ----?     WBCs

119.                      AIS have ---- components?    2

120.                      B lymphocytes kill pathogens ----?   20%

121.                      How many lymphocytes in human body?   2×10¹²

122.                      Substances that activate AIS are called ----?   Antigens

123.                      The rates were unable to mount?   AIR

124.                      B cells develop in ----?   Bone marrow

125.                      Immunoglobin domain is ---- long?    110 AA

126.                      Polyvalent ---- times stronger than monovalent?      100

127.                      Which is the first class of Ab to appear on the cells surface?      lgM

128.                      How many classes of antibodies?      5

129.                      Which chain is required for pen tamer formation?      J chain

130.                      lgG is monomer it is only -----?      Ab

131.                      Which receptors are located on the mast cells?      lgE F_c 

132.                      A myeloma cell is fused with a B cells to form?    Hybridoma

133.                      In the absence of the antigen human can make more than ---- different antibody molecule?    10¹²

134.                      Number of Human gene is ----?     30,000

135.                      Immunoglobin genes have relatively ----- mutation rate?    High

136.                      Effector helper T cells stimulate the responses of other cells?    Phagocytic macrophages, B cells

137.                      T cells receptor recognizes processed antigen of other cells?    MHC protein

138.                      How many proteins are not immunoglobin?       1

139.                      Antigen is -----?        Peptide fragment

140.                      A virus infected cell in the case of -----?    Cytotoxic C cell

141.                      How many types of MHC molecules?        2

142.                      APC expresses major histocompatibility complex -----?        MHC genes

143.                      How many genes are present in MHC classes?      6

144.                      3 genes for class 1 proteins -----?         HLA-A,B,C

145.                      Class 11 can ------pair up?        α & β

146.                      MHC rove can accommodate an extended peptide about ----- long?     8-10 amino acids

147.                      Each class 1 MHC protein can bind a peptide of -----?       Diverse sequences

148.                      Which terminal bonds to invariant pockets?        C , N

149.                      Cytotoxic T cells provide protection against -----?         Intracellular pathogen

150.                      Which cell form a clone?         T_c

151.                      How many steps are present in protein depending killing?    4

152.                      Helper T cells activated by an ---- cell to become an affecter cell?      Antigen  cell

153.                      How many types of effector cells?      2

154.                      TH2 cells mainly help activate -------?     B cells

155.                      APCs provide ---- types of signals?       2

156.                      Signal 1 is produced by ---?                   Peptide bond

157.                      B 7 proteins are -----?         CD80- Cd86

158.                      Which protein is present on the surface of T cells?              CD28

159.                      The compliment system consists of ----- proteins?         30

160.                      The complement proteins are account for about ----- of the globulin?          5%

161.                      C1 complex consists of ---- molecules?    6

162.                      Which molecule binding the surface of pathogens?                   C1_q

163.                      The complex of C4b, 2b is called -----?         C3

164.                      Macrophages and neutrophils have receptor for -----?      C3b

165.                      Cleavage of CS by the -----?       C3/C

166.                      C3b binds to a protein is called?        Factor B

167.                      C3 converts into ----- form?       3

168.                      The MBL associated serine proteases-----?        MASP-1, MASP-2, MASp-3

169.                      Factor 1 is inactivates -----?        C3b

170.                      C1 inhibitor binds to sites on activated -----?        C11NH

171.                      A proto- oncogene code for -----?         Protein

172.                      Proto- oncogenes are involved in signal ------?        Transduction

173.                      How many classes of oncogenes?      4

174.                      Autonomous cell growth is present  in ----- cell?     Cancer

175.                      Many glioblastomas secrete -----?    PDGF

176.                      EGF receptor ERBB1 is over expressed in ------ of SCC of lung?     80%

177.                      ERBB/HER2 is amplified in the ------ of the cancer?        25%-30%

178.                      Mutation of RAS is present approximately -----in all humans?        30%

179.                      BCR-ABL hybrid gene activates -----?   RAC

180.                      MYC assembles own a specific DNA sequence and drive ----- of genes?     Transcription

181.                      MYC binds with -----?       DNA

182.                      MYC gene encoding the -----?       Cyclin D

183.                      RB which overcome the hurdle of ------ hurdle?     G1 to 5

184.                      The activated of CDKs is regulated by ------?      CDK

185.                      CDKs are occurring in ----?      TGF-α  

186.                      Which can activate DNA repair protein?       P53

187.                      Which is the most common mutant gene in human cancers?       P53

188.                      P53 protein is stabilized by ------?      Damaged DNA

189.                      How many types of Cdks?    4

190.                      Active P53 binds to regulatory region of ------ gene?    P21

191.                      Abnormally high level of MYC causes the activation of -----?    P19ARF

192.                      Papillomavirus uses ----- viral proteins?     2

193.                      Two vital proteins are ----?   E6 and E7

194.                      Which virus uses a single dual purpose protein?     Sv40

195.                      How many bone cells die in a healthy adult?    Billions

196.                      ------ Biochemical processes take place in a membrane?    Vital

197.                      An animal cell contains about ------- protein molecule?     10¹⁰

198.                      ^{How many kinds} of protein molecules?    10,000-20,000

199.                      Lipid bilayer of organelle membranes is impermeable to most ---- molecule?    Hydrophilic

200.                      The transport molecule derived from the lumen of ----- compartment?    1

201.                      ---- direct the protein form the cytosol in to ER?     SS1

202.                      SS2 consist of a specific -------dimensional arrangement of atoms on the protein surface?    3

203.                      Envelop consist of ----- concentric membrane?     2

204.                      The inner nuclear membrane contains specific ----- that acts as a binding site?    Protein

205.                      Bidirectional traffic between the cytosol and -----?      Protein

206.                      Each complex has a molecular mass of about -----?     125 million

207.                      THE SIGNALDEFINED BY NUMEROUS PROTEIN BY USING ----- TECHNOLOGY?      DNA recombinant

208.                      The energy is provided by the hydrolysis of -----?      GTP

209.                      TIM22 complex mediates ------- of inner membrane protein?      Insertion

210.                      The N- terminal signal sequence of precursor protein is recognized by ------ complex?     TOM

211.                      Protein transport requires ----- signal sequences?     2

212.                      How many sub compartments of mitochondria?     2

213.                      Chaperon protein belonging to the ----- family?        hsp70

214.                      The trans locator ----- complex forms a water filled pore in the membrane?    Sec61

215.                      The stop transfer sequence is a ------ α helix membrane?    Single

216.                      Golgi apparatus are packed into a small ----- coated transport vesicle?    COP11 217. Homotypic fusion and heterotypic fusion requires a set of matching -----?     

SNAREs

        218.      Resident ER membrane protein consists of ----- lysine?     2

219.

Lysosomes contain ------ types of hydrolytic enzymes?      40

220.                      Lysosome contains pH ----?    5.0

222.

221.                      Lysosomes hydrolysis carries a unique marker in the form of ----- groups?     M6P How many classes of WBCs in mammals?        3

223.                      All organs have limited ability to regenerate ----?     1cm

224.                      Human blood discovered?           Austrian Karl Landsteiner

225.                      Phagocytosis involves the digestion of ----?        Microorganisms

226.                      Skin regenerate every -------?      two weeks

227.                      Every ---- a person dies from a disease that can be treated with tissue transplant?      

30 sec

228.

In ----- Bogdanov blood transfusion experiment?    1924

        229.     Which cells don’t cause e rejection?    Adult stem cells

. What is Kinetic energy? 2

The energy possessed by an object because of its motion, equal to one half the mass of the body times the square of its velocity.

2. Define Klinfelter syndrome? 2

Klinefelter syndrome is a genetic condition affecting males, and it often isn't diagnosed until adulthood. Klinefelter syndrome may adversely affect testicular growth, resulting in smaller than normal testicles, which can lead to lower production of testosterone.

3. Epistasis, co-dominance, incomplete dominance? 5

Epistasis

Epistasis is a circumstance where the expression of one gene is modified by the expression of one or more other genes.

Co-dominance

Codominance, as it relates to genetics, refers to a type of inheritance in which two versions (alleles) of the same gene are expressed separately to yield different traits in an individual.

Incomplete dominance

Incomplete dominance results from a cross in which each parental contribution is genetically unique and gives rise to progeny whose phenotype is intermediate. Incomplete dominance is also referred to as semi-dominance and partial dominance.

4. Define Mutation, Genetic engineering and plasmid? 3

Mutation

A mutation is a change in the DNA sequence of an organism. Mutations can result from errors in DNA replication during cell division, exposure to mutagens or a viral infection.

Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering (also called genetic modification) is a process that uses laboratory-based technologies to alter the DNA makeup of an organism. This may involve changing a single base pair (A-T or C-G), deleting a region of DNA or adding a new segment of DNA.

Plasmid 

A plasmid is a small circular DNA molecule found in bacteria and some other microscopic organisms. Plasmids are physically separate from chromosomal DNA and replicate independently.

5. Difference between Klinfilter Syndrome and turner syndrome?

Klinefelter syndrome

Klinefelter syndrome is a genetic condition affecting males, and it often isn't diagnosed until adulthood. Klinefelter syndrome may adversely affect testicular growth, resulting in smaller than normal testicles, which can lead to lower production of testosterone.

Turner syndrome

Turner syndrome is a condition that affects only females, results when one of the X chromosomes (sex chromosomes) is missing or partially missing. Turner syndrome can cause a variety of medical and developmental problems, including short height, failure of the ovaries to develop and heart defects.

6. What is a lysosome?

Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed organelles that contain an array of enzymes capable of breaking down all types of biological polymers proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids.

7. Main components of PCR? 3

The various components required for PCR include a DNA sample, DNA primers, free nucleotides called ddNTPs, and DNA polymerase.

8. Define coenzyme?

A coenzyme is defined as an organic molecule that binds to the active sites of certain enzymes to assist in the catalysis of a reaction.

9. Role of protein in living organisms?

Proteins provide many of the structural elements of a cell, and they help to bind cells together into tissues. Proteins, in the form of antibodies, protect animals from disease, and many hormones are proteins. Proteins control the activity of genes and regulate gene expression.

10. Define Cross pollination?   2 

Cross pollination is a natural method in which transfer of pollen takes place from an anther of a flower of one plant to a stigma of a flower of another plant of the same species.

11. Quaternary structure of protein?  2 

Protein quaternary structure is the fourth classification level of protein structure. Protein quaternary structure refers to the structure of proteins which are themselves composed of two or more smaller protein chains.

12. Prosthetic group and give examples? 3

Prosthetic group is a type of a helper molecule which is a non-proteinaceous compound that helps enzymes to perform their functions.

For Example :

The heme group in hemoglobin is a prosthetic group.

13. Gel electrophoresis?  3 

Gel electrophoresis is a laboratory method used to separate mixtures of DNA, RNA, or proteins according to molecular size. In gel electrophoresis, the molecules to be separated are pushed by an electrical field through a gel that contains small pores.

14. Active site? (2)

The active site is the region of an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction.

15. Sex linked disorder? (2)

A sex-linked inherited disorder is caused by a genetic mutation on the X chromosome. These are also inherited in a dominant or recessive pattern. There are also disorders associated with the Y chromosome, but these are inherited less frequently. That is because they are often associated with male infertility.

16. Steps of mitosis? (3)

Mitosis is that step in the cell cycle where the newly formed DNA is separated and two new cells are formed with the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus. 

Mitosis is involving five phases, based on the physical state of the chromosomes and spindle.  i.         Prophase

ii.            Pro-metaphase

iii.          Metaphase iv.           Anaphase

v.        Telophase.

 

17. PKU means and its caused? (3)

Phenylketonuria also called PKU, is a rare inherited disorder that causes an amino acid called phenylalanine to build up in the body. PKU is caused by a change in the phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH) gene. This gene helps create the enzyme needed to break down phenylalanine.

18. Requirements of PCR? (5)  DNA Template:

The DNA of interest from the sample.

•      DNA Polymerase:

Taq Polymerase is used. It is thermostable and does not denature at very high temperatures.

•      Oligonucleotide Primers: 

These are the short stretches of single-stranded DNA complementary to the 3’ ends of sense and anti-sense strands.

•      Deoxyribonucleotide triphosphate: 

These provide energy for polymerization and are the building blocks for the synthesis of DNA. These are single units of bases.

•      Buffer System:

Magnesium and Potassium provide optimum conditions for DNA denaturation and renaturation. It is also important for fidelity, polymerase activity, and stability.

19. Define Cell division? (2)

Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides, when a mother cell divides into two or more daughter cells. Cell division usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle.

20. Define nucleoside and nucleotide? (3)

Nucleoside

A nucleoside is a compound formed by the union of a nitrogen base with a pentose sugar. 

Nucleotide

A nucleotide is a compound formed by the union of a nitrogen base, a nitrogen sugar and phosphate.

21. Features of Mitochondria?

Mitochondria are typically round to oval in shape and range in size from 0.5 to 10 μm. In addition to producing energy, mitochondria store calcium for cell signalling activities, generate heat, and mediate cell growth and death. 

Further features of Mitochondria involve:

•      Production of ATP

•      Calcium Homeostasis

•      Regulation of Innate Immunity

•      Programmed Cell Death

•      Stem Cell Regulation

 

22. What is DNA Fingerprinting?           

DNA fingerprinting is a method used to identify an individual from a sample of DNA by looking at unique patterns in their DNA.  

23. Functions of DNA?

The function of DNA is to store all of the genetic information that an organism needs to develop, function, and reproduce. DNA is involved in:

•      Replication process

•      Mutations

•      Transcription

•      Cellular Metabolism

•      DNA Fingerprinting

•      Gene Therapy

 

24. What is smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

SER is a membrane-bound network of tubules without surface ribosomes. SER is not involved in protein synthesis. Its main function is the synthesis of lipids, steroids, and carbohydrates, as well as the metabolism of exogenous substances, such as drugs or toxins.

25. Difference between purines and pyrimidines?

Purines

•      The purines in DNA are adenine and guanine, the same as in RNA.

•      Purines are larger than pyrimidines because they have a two-ring structure.

Pyrimidines 

•      The pyrimidines in DNA are cytosine and thymine in RNA, they are cytosine and uracil.

•      Pyrimidines only have a single ring.

 

26. Function of cellular membrane?

•      Protecting the cell against physical damage and invading pathogens.

•      Cell wall controls and regulates the direction of cell growth.

•      Providing the strength, structural support and maintaining the shape of the cell.

•      Functions as a storage unit by storing carbohydrates for use in plant growth, especially in seeds.

•      It allows entry of smaller molecules through it freely.

 

27. Components of Cellular Membrane? 5

The principal components of the cell membrane are:

•      Lipids

•      Phospholipids

•      Cholesterol

•      Proteins

•      carbohydrate groups that are attached to some of the lipids and proteins.

 

28. PCR techniques? 5 marks

PCR or Polymerase Chain Reaction is a technique used in molecular biology to create several copies of a certain DNA segment. This technique was developed in 1983 by Kary Mullis, an American biochemist. PCR has made it possible to generate millions of copies of a small segment of DNA. This tool is commonly used in the molecular biology and biotechnology labs. The PCR technique is based on the enzymatic replication of DNA. In PCR, a short segment of

DNA is amplified using primer mediated enzymes. DNA Polymerase synthesises new strands of DNA complementary to the template DNA. The DNA polymerase can add a nucleotide to the pre-existing 3’-OH group only. Therefore, a primer is required. Thus, more nucleotides are added to the 3’ prime end of the DNA polymerase.

29. Define semi conservative replication, Conservative replication and dispersive replication of DNA? (5) 

 Semiconservative replication

Semiconservative replication describes the mechanism of DNA replication in all known cells.

DNA replication occurs on multiple origins of replication along the DNA template strand. As the DNA double helix is unwound by helicase, replication occurs separately on each template strand in antiparallel directions.

 Conservative Replication

In conservative replication, two DNA copies are produced from one original DNA, which serves as a template. Out of these two, one is entirely new DNA, and the other is made of old DNA strands.

 Dispersive replication

It is a replication process that also produces two DNA copies from the original DNA. Here, the two DNA products have distinct regions composed of new and original strands. This replication happens in a random fashion.

30. Define Ester Linkage?   

The bond formed between both organic molecules is called an ester linkage.

OR

In an ester molecule, the bond connecting the atom doubly bonded to oxygen and the oxygen atom bearing the alkyl or aryl group is called the ester bond or, in biochemistry, ester linkage.

31. Function of PAH enzyme?              

The PAH gene provides instructions for making an enzyme called phenylalanine hydroxylase. This enzyme is responsible for the first step in processing phenylalanine, which is a building block of proteins an amino acid obtained through the diet.

32. What are X-linked disorders? 

All sex-linked disorders are X-linked. There are very few X-linked dominant diseases, inheritance pattern is characterized by transmission of the disease to 50% of the sons and daughters of an affected female. For example: Bruton's tyrosine kinase, a protein whose mutation is associated with X-linked agammaglobulinemia.

 

33. Proteins denaturation? 

Since denaturation reactions are not strong enough to break the peptide bonds, the primary structure (sequence of amino acids) remains the same after a denaturation process. Denaturation disrupts the normal alpha-helix and beta sheets in a protein and uncoils it into a random shape.

 

34. Down syndrome define?

Down syndrome (DS or DNS), also known as trisomy 21, is a genetic disorder caused by the presence of all or part of a third copy of chromosome 21. It is typically associated with physical growth delays, characteristic facial features, and mild to moderate intellectual disability.

 

35. Describe the phases of mitosis?  

There are essentially six stages of mitosis (some textbooks tend to club pro-metaphase and prophase into a single stage). The stages of mitosis comprise:

1.      Interphase

2.      Prophase

3.      Pro-metaphase

4.      Metaphase

5.      Anaphase

6.      Telophase

Interphase

Technically, the interphase is not a part of mitosis, however, it is still a crucial process as it leads up to the process of mitosis. Hence, the interphase refers to all the other stages of cell cycle other than mitosis.

Prophase

Prophase is technically the first stage of mitosis. It is also the longest phase of mitosis, where the chromatin condenses into chromosomes and the nuclear membrane breaks down (in prometaphase). In animal cells, the centrioles located near the nucleus begin to split and move to the opposite ends of the cell.

Metaphase

In metaphase, the microtubules pull on the chromosomes with equal force, and the chromosome moves to the center of the cell.

Anaphase

The anaphase is marked by the splitting of the sister chromatids. These sister chromatids then become the chromosomes of the daughter nuclei.

Telophase

The telophase is the final phase of mitosis. It begins after the replicated, paired chromosomes are separated and pulled at the opposite ends of the pole.

 

36. Translation in detail?

Translation is the process by which the genetic code contained within a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule is decoded to produce a specific sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

It occurs in the cytoplasm following DNA transcription and, like transcription, has three stages: initiation, elongation and termination. In this article we will discuss the components and stages of DNA translation.

 

Components of Translation

The key components required for translation are mRNA, ribosomes, and transfer RNA (tRNA).

During translation, mRNA nucleotide bases are read as codons of three bases. Each codon codes for a particular amino acid. Every tRNA molecule possesses an anticodon that is complementary to the mRNA codon, and at the opposite end lies the attached amino acid. tRNA molecules are therefore responsible for bringing amino acids to the ribosome in the correct order, ready for polypeptide assembly.

A single amino acid may be coded for by more than one codon. There are also specific codons that signal the start and the end of translation.

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases are enzymes that link amino acids to their corresponding tRNA molecules. The resulting complex is charged and is referred to as an aminoacyl-tRNA. Steps of translation: - 

	Initiation
	Elongation
	Termination

 

37. note on transcription (5) 

Transcription is the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is copied into a new molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA). DNA safely and stably stores genetic material in the nuclei of cells as a reference, or template. Meanwhile, mRNA is comparable to a copy from a reference book because it carries the same information as DNA but is not used for long-term storage and can freely exit the nucleus. Although the mRNA contains the same information, it is not an identical copy of the DNA segment, because its sequence is complementary to the DNA template.

Transcription is carried out by an enzyme called RNA polymerase and a number of accessory proteins called transcription factors. Transcription factors can bind to specific DNA sequences called enhancer and promoter sequences in order to recruit RNA polymerase to an appropriate transcription site. Together, the transcription factors and RNA polymerase form a complex called the transcription initiation complex. This complex initiates transcription, and the RNA polymerase begins mRNA synthesis by matching complementary bases to the original DNA strand. The mRNA molecule is elongated and, once the strand is completely synthesized, transcription is terminated. The newly formed mRNA copies of the gene then serve as blueprints for protein synthesis during the process of translation.

38. Techniques of genetic engineering (long)

Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering (also called genetic modification) is a process that uses laboratory-based technologies to alter the DNA makeup of an organism. This may involve changing a single base pair (A-T or C-G), deleting a region of DNA or adding a new segment of DNA.

Techniques of Genetic Engineering: -

i.               Process 

ii.            History 

iii.          Choosing target genes  iv.             Gene manipulation 

v.                   Extraction from cells 

vi.                 Gene isolation 

vii.              Modification 

viii.            Transformation 

ix.                 Development 

x.                   Selection 

xi.                 Regeneration 

xii.              Confirmation

xiii.            Gene targeting 

xiv.             Gene trapping

 

39. Cell cycle (long)

The cell cycle is the process a cell undertakes to replicate all of its genetic material and divide into two identical cells. In this article, we will look at the different stages of the cell cycle and what happens in each stage. We will also consider the regulation of the cell cycle, and look at some examples of its dysregulation.

 

Phases of the Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is a 4-stage process consisting of Gap 1 (G1), synthesis (S), Gap 2 (G2) and mitosis (M), which a cell undergoes as it grows and divides. After completing the cycle, the cell either starts the process again from G1 or exits the cycle through G0. From G0, the cell can undergo terminal differentiation.

The stages in the cell cycle between one mitosis and the next, which include G1, S and G2, are known collectively as the interphase.

1. G1 phase: -

•      Cell increases in size

•      Cellular contents are duplicated

 

2. S phase: - 

•      DNA replication

•      Each of the 46 chromosomes are replicated

 

3. G2 phase: - 

•      Cell grows more

•      Organelles are proteins are developing in preparation for cell division

 

4. M phase: - 

•      Mitosis followed by cytokinesis

•      Formation of two identical sister chromatids

 

5. G◦ Phase: -

While some cells are constantly dividing, some cell types are quiescent. These cells exit G1 and enter a resting state called G0. In G0, a cell is performing its function without actively preparing to divide. G0 is a permanent state for some cells, while others may re-start division if they get the right signals

 

40.  3 dilemmas of DNA replication

The three steps in the process of DNA replication are initiation, elongation and termination. Replication depends on the pairing of bases between the two strands of DNA.

•      Initiation.

•      Elongation.

•      Termination.

 

41. mitochondrial features

Mitochondria is double membrane-enclosed organelle. lt contains its own DNA, ribosomes, and other components required for protein synthesis, most of its proteins are encoded in the cell nucleus and imported from the cytosol There are two sub-compartments in mitochondria: the internal matrix space and the intermembrane space.

 

42. restriction endonucleases

Special bacterial enzyme can cut double stranded DNA at specific sites in a test tube. Restriction endonucleases (restriction enzymes) act as a kind of immune system, protecting the cell from the invasion of foreign DNA (virus). Many recombinant DNA technologies, which the field of biotechnology heavily relies on, are unlikely to have been developed without the discovery of restriction enzymes

 

43. macromolecules present in cell.

The four major types of macromolecules found in living cells—carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids--are made of these smaller, repeating subunits called monomers. The monomers within one molecule are not always identical but they always have similar chemical structures.

44. Chargaff's Rule?  

Chargaff's rules state that DNA from any cell of all organisms should have a 1:1 ratio (base Pair Rule) of pyrimidine and purine bases and, more specifically, that the amount of guanine should be equal to cytosine and the amount of adenine should be equal to thymine.

 

45. What type of bacterial colonies F. Griffith was used in his experiment? (2 marks)

Griffith used two strains of pneumococcus (Streptococcus pneumoniae) bacteria which infect mice — a type III-S (smooth) which was virulent, and a type II-R (rough) strain which was nonvirulent. The III-S strain synthesized a polysaccharide capsule that protected itself from the host's immune system, resulting in the death of the host, while the II-R strain did not have that protective capsule and was defeated by the host's immune system.

 

46. difference between DNA and RNA? (5)

Structurally, DNA and RNA are nearly identical. As mentioned earlier, however, there are three fundamental differences that account for the very different functions of the two molecules. RNA has a ribose sugar instead of a deoxyribose sugar like DNA.RNA nucleotides have a uracil base instead of thymine.

 

47. Describe the techniques used by Mendel in his experiment (2)

Gregor Mendel conducted hybridization experiments on around 29,000 pea plants. Peas were an ideal choice for Mendel to use because they had easily observable traits there were 7 of which he could manipulate. He began his experiments on peas with two conditions.

 

48. define aqua porins 

Aquaporin: A water channel.

 Aquaporins form pores in the membranes of cells and selectively conduct water molecules through the membrane, while preventing the passage of ions (such as sodium and potassium) and other small molecules. Aquaporins are typically composed of identical subunit proteins.

 

49. law of inheritance 

Gregor Mendel, through his work on pea plants, discovered the fundamental laws of inheritance. He deduced that genes come in pairs and are inherited as distinct units, one from each parent. Mendel tracked the segregation of parental genes and their appearance in the offspring as dominant or recessive traits.

 

50. role of lipids 

The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy, signaling, and acting as structural components of cell membranes. ... Although the term "lipid" is sometimes used as a synonym for fats, fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides.

 

51. stages of meiosis 1 

the stages of meiosis I are:

•      prophase I

•      metaphase I

•      anaphase I

•      telophase I

 

52. ENLIST CELL organelles 

Nucleolus.

Nucleus.

Ribosome (little dots) Vesicle.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum. Golgi

apparatus (or "Golgi body") Cytoskeleton.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

 

53. define threshold effect and write the rate of occurrence first degree of relative and identical twins?

A threshold effect is a sudden and radical change in a phenomenon which often occurs after surpassing a quantitative limit, called the threshold. 

It may refer to:

Re-normaIization group, Threshold effect, a particle physics calculation. Threshold effect

(genetics), a trait in genetics. Twins are two offspring produced by the same pregnancy. Twins can be either monozygotic ("identical"), meaning that they develop from one zygote, which splits and forms two embryos, or dizygotic ("fraternal"), meaning that they develop from two different eggs.

 

54. Abbreviation of VNTRs 

Variable Number of Tandem Repeats (genetics)

 

55. Ionic bond

Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bonding that involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, and is the primary interaction occurring in ionic compounds

 

56. Define carbohydrates. Also write their classification. 

Carbohydrates: - a large group of organic compounds occurring in foods and living tissues and including sugars, starch, and cellulose. They contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as water (2:1) and typically can be broken down to release energy in the animal body. Classification: -

•      Monosaccharides

•      Disaccharides

•      Oligosaccharides

•      Polysaccharides

 

57. Define polyploidy and aneuploidy with examples.

Polyploidy: -

Cells (and their owners) are polyploid if they contain more than two haploid (n) sets of chromosomes; that is, their chromosome number is some multiple of n greater than the 2n content of diploid cells. For example, triploid (3n) and tetraploid cell (4n) cells are polyploid. 

 

Chromosomes in Down syndrome, the most common human condition due to aneuploidy. Notice the three copies of chromosome 21 in the last row. 

 

Aneuploidy: - 

Aneuploidy is the presence of an abnormal number of chromosomes in a cell, for example a human cell having 45 or 47 chromosomes instead of the usual 46.

 

58. function of cell (2) 

The human body is composed of trillions of cells. They provide structure for the body, take in nutrients from food, convert those nutrients into energy, and carry out specialized functions. Cells also contain the body's hereditary material and can make copies of themselves.

 

59. types of cristae Golgi apparatus (2)

•      Cristae Membrane 

•      Cristae Junctions

 

60. lysosome and heat shock protein

Lysosome: an organelle in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells containing degradative enzymes enclosed in a membrane. 

Heat Shock Protein: a protein induced in a living cell in response to a rise in temperature above the normal level.

 

61. What are Helicase and Primase?

A helicase—primase complex (also helicase-primase, Hel/Prim, H-P or H/P) is a complex of enzymes including DNA helicase and DNA primase. The complex is used by herpesviruses in which it is responsible for lytic DNA virus replication

62. Electro-negativity

Electronegativity The tendency of an atom to attract electrons towards itself.

63. Difference b/w meiosis and mitosis?

The processes differ in two fundamental. Meiosis has two rounds of genetic separation and cellular division while mitosis only has one of each. In meiosis homologous chromosomes separate leading to daughter cells that are not genetically identical two cells with no net change in the number of chromosomes.

64. UV light sterilization 

UV light sterilization is an environmentally friendly method of killing bacteria, mold, fungi, and viruses without the use of harmful chemicals and does not produce corrosive materials or disinfection by-products(DBPs).

65. Differentiate between T-cell and B-cell 

An important difference between T-cells and B-cells is that B-cells can connect to antigens right on the surface of the invading virus or bacteria. This is different from T-cells, which can only connect to virus antigens on the outside of infected cells.

 

66. Differentiate between homotypic and heterotypic fusion

 

Homotypic cell fusion

 

Homotypic cell fusion occurs between cells of the same type. An example of this would be osteoclasts or myofibers being fusing together with their respective type of cells. Whenever the two nuclei merge a synkaryon is produced. Cell fusion normally occurs with nuclear fusion, but in the absence of nuclear fusion, the cell would be described as a bi-nucleated heterokaryon. A heterokaryon is the melding of two or more cells into one and it may reproduce itself for several generations. If two of the same type of cells fuse, but their nuclei do not fuse, then the resulting cell is called asyncytium.

 

Heterotypic cell fusion 

Heterotypic cell fusion occurs between cells of different types, making it the exact opposite of homotypic cell fusion. There result of this fusion is also a synkaryon produced by the merging of the nuclei, and a bi-nucleated heterokaryon in the absence of nuclear fusion. An example of this would be BMDCs being fused with parenchymatous organs.

 

67. Types of antibiotics

These are the main types of antibiotics.

Penicillins: such as penicillin and amoxicillin 

Cephalosporins: such as cephalexin (Keflex) 

Macrolides: such as erythromycin (EMycin), clarithromycin (Biaxin), and azithromycin (Zithromax)

Fluoroquinolones: such as ciprofloxacin (Cipro), levofloxacin (Levaquin), and ofloxacin (Floxin) 

Sulfonamides: such as co-trimoxazole (Bactrim) and trimethoprim (Proloprim)

Tetracyclines: such as tetracycline (Sumycin, Panmycin) and doxycycline (Vibramycin)

 Aminoglycosides: such as gentamicin (Garamycin) and tobramycin (Tobrex)

 

68. Confluent monolayer

Confluent monolayer refers to cells in tissue culture, e.g. epithelial cells, which form a cohesive sheet comprising of a single cell layer filling the entire surface area of the bottom of the culture dish. Cells have then reached confluence.

 

69. Types of RNA and their functions (3)

•      mRNA: mRNA is transcribed from DNA and contains the genetic blueprint to make proteins

•      tRNA: tRNAs are RNA molecules that translate mRNA into proteins.

•      Rrna: rRNA forms ribosomes, which are essential in protein synthesis. A ribosome contains a large and small ribosomal subunit.

 

70. Difference between PKU and PAH (2)

PKU:  Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder characterized by a deficiency in the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH)

 

PAH: is the enzyme which causes PKU

 

71.  Note on endocytosis, pinocytosis & phagocytosis (5)

 Endocytosis: -

The material to be ingested is progressively enclosed by a small portion of the plasma membrane, which first invigilates and then pinches off to form an endocytic vesicle containing the ingested substance or particle.

 

 Pinocytosis: - 

Pinocytosis involves ingestion of fluid & solutes via small pinocytic vesicles (about 100 nm in diameter)

 

 Phagocytosis: -

Phagocytosis involves the ingestion of large particles microorganisms or dead cells via large vesicles called phagosomes (>250 nm in diameter)

 

72.    What is Alpaktonuria?

Alkaptonuria, or black urine disease, is a very rare inherited disorder that prevents the body fully breaking down two protein building blocks (amino acids) called tyrosine and phenylalanine. It results in a build-up of a chemical called homogentisic acid in the body.

 

73.    What is Codon?  

Codon is a sequence of three nucleotides which together form a unit of genetic code in a DNA or RNA molecule.

 

74.    Write three stop codons? 

•      UAG

•      UAA 

•      UGA

 

75. Write three RNA Viruses?

•      Orthomyxoviruses

•      Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)

•      Ebola disease

•      SARS

•      influenza

•      polio measles

•      retrovirus

 

76.  sites of larger subunits of Ribosome?

 

The large ribosomal subunit has three places that can bind tRNA:

 the A site  the P site  the E site. 

 

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